BA’ATHISM
Ba’athism is an Arab political doctrine which combines elements of socialist
thinking with pan- Arabism. This theory of Arab nationalism conceives of the
‘Arab nation’ as a single entity stretching from Morocco to Iraq which has
been artificially divided by colonialism and imperialism.
Ba’athism originated in Syria, where the first Ba’ath Party was founded in
1953. Ba’athists have held power in Syria since 1963 and Iraq since 1968,
although the two branches of the movement are deeply divided. There have
been further divisions between its civilian and military elements. While the
Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein employed the slogans of pan-Arabism to justify
his invasion of Kuwait in 1990, the Ba’ath Party in Iraq has been reduced to
an instrument of state power.
BAADER-MEINHOF GANG
The Baader-Meinhof gang were a West German anarchist terrorist group, (also
called the Red Army Faction). Its leaders were Andreas Baader and
Ulrike Meinhof. The group set itself to oppose the capitalist organisation
of German society and the presence of US armed forces by engaging in murders,
bombings, and kidnappings. The leaders were arrested in 1972, and their
trial and deaths by suicide received considerable publicity. The group
continued its terrorist activities in the 1980s, forming a number of
splinter cells.
BABELAVANTE
Babelavante is an old term from the Middle Ages for a bad joke.
BABINGTON PLOT
The Babington Plot of 1586 was a conspiracy to co-ordinate a Spanish
invasion of England with a rising of English Catholics, to assassinate
Elizabeth I, and to replace her on the throne with Mary, Queen of Scots.
Sir Anthony Babington was the go-between in the secret preparations.
Walsingham monitored Babington’s correspondence with the captive Queen Mary
until he had enough evidence of her treasonable intentions to have her tried
and executed in 1587, Babington having been executed after torture at Tyburn.
BABISM
Babism is the doctrines of a Muslim messianic Shiite sect. Founded in 1844
by the Persian Sayyid Ali Muhammad of Shiraz known as the Bab ed-Din (the
gate or intermediary between man and God), who declared himself to be the
long-awaited Mahdi. For inciting insurrection the Bab was arrested in 1848
by the government and executed in 1850, his remains being interred in 1909
on Mount Carmel, Palestine. In 1863 Baha’ullah and his son Abdul Baha
declared themselves the new leaders, and their followers became known as the
Baha’is.
BACKSHISH
See “Bakshish”
BACKWASH
Backwash is the flow of water down a beach under the influence of gravity
after the breaking of a wave and its associated swash. As this water returns
to the breaker zone it carries beach material with it. Steep waves, which
break almost vertically on to a beach, have an extremely powerful backwash
and move much material out to sea. Backwash contributes to longshore drift.
BACON’S REBELLION
Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676 was an uprising in Virginia, North America, led by
an English immigrant, Nathaniel Bacon. Dissident county leaders and landless
ex-servants followed his opposition to Sir William Berkeley. Though he was
initially successful, Bacon died soon after the passage of reforms in the
Virginian Assembly. Underlying the rebellion were problems caused by
depressed tobacco prices and lack of colonial autonomy.
BADLANDS
In geomorphology, badlands are areas of bare ground which have been
intensely eroded by running water into a maze of miniature canyons and steep
slopes. There may be hundreds of tiny stream channels within a single square
kilometre or mile, with the channels containing water only after rainstorms.
Common on clays and shales in areas where the climate is semi-arid, they
occur also on the tip-heaps of mines, especially of china-clay workings, in
areas where the climate is wetter. Resistant layers of rock are often left
as cappings on pillars of softer rock; these structures are known as hoodoos,
or pedestal rocks.
BAHA’ISM
Baha’ism is a religion founded in Iran by Baha’ullah with about five million
adherents throughout the world. Following the suppression of the millenarian
Babi movement Babism in Iran and the execution of its leader, the Bab, in
1850, Baha’ullah declared himself in 1863 to be the new prophet heralded by
the Bab. Baha’ullah acknowledged the revelations of earlier prophets such as
Jesus and Muhammad, but held that the single identity of God must be
retaught by new prophecy to each generation. Baha’is believe in the
spiritual progression of the world to unity and their ideal is an
international community with one language. Baha’i temples are open to the
faithful of all creeds. A Universal House of Justice administers the
religion, with its centres in Haifa and Akko (Acre) in Israel. There is no
clergy or ritual; spiritual practice includes daily private prayer and an
annual period of fasting, which ends with the festival of Now Ruz, the
Persian New Year at the spring equinox. Baha’is stress the equality of women
and the importance of monogamous family life. Although Baha’is regard the
Koran and Muhammad with reverence, to Muslims the Baha’is are heretics who
have displaced the Koran from its position as the final and most important
revelation; this has led to persecution in Iran since the religion’s
inception, with renewed force since the Islamic revolution of 1979.
Furthermore, the location of the Baha’is world centre in Israel has led to
an association of Baha’is with that country and made the Baha’is a target of
anti-Semitic sentiment.
BAHR
Bahr is an Arabic term denoting a river or lake.
BAIL
Bail is the release by the police, magistrates’ court, or Crown Court of a
person held in legal custody while awaiting trial or appealing against a
criminal conviction. A person granted bail undertakes to pay a specified sum
to the court if he fails to appear on the date set by the court. This is
known as bail in one’s own recognisance. Often the court also requires
guarantors (known as sureties) to undertake to produce the accused or to
forfeit the sum fixed by the court if they fail to do so. In these
circumstances the bailed person is, in theory, released into the custody of
the sureties. Judges have wide discretionary powers as to whether or not
bail should be granted, and for what sum. Normally an accused is granted
bail unless it is likely that he will abscond, or interfere with witnesses,
or unless he is accused of a serious crime (such as rape) and is likely to
repeat it if released. The accused has the right to appeal to the High Court
against a refusal to grant him bail. The conditions governing bail are
contained in the Bail Act 1976.
BAIRAM
Bairam is a Muslim feast falling immediately after Ramadan and extending
over one to three days. A second
Bairam falling seventy days later, commemorates Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac.
BAIZE
Baize is a rough woollen cloth with a nap on one side used for linings,
coverings and curtains, most notably covering billiards, snooker and pool
tables.
BAKELITE
Bakelite is a strong synthetic material resistant to heat and chemicals.
BAKSHISH
Bakshish or backshish (from the Persian for a gift) is a word used
throughout the Arab world for a gratuity for services rendered, though it is
demanded often with threats.
BALANCE OF POWER
In politics, the balance of power is the theory that the strength of one
group of powers on the European continent should be equal to the strength of
the other group, thus preventing one group from becoming dominant. Britain’s
foreign policy in Europe before the Great War is often said to have been
dictated by the wish to achieve a balance of power between the countries on
the continent of Europe, and so prevent aggression and war.
BALDRIC
A baldric is a belt used to support a sword or bugle.
BALIBUNTAL
A balibuntal is a hat of closely woven fine straw worn in the Philippines.
BALLAD
A ballad is a narrative song.
BALLOON
A balloon is a bag filled with gas.
BALLOONING
Ballooning is a form of un-powered flight dependant on the inflation of a
usually spherical fabric container with a gas that is lighter than air, such
as heated air. The container (balloon) rises, carrying the pilot and
passengers in a basket beneath it. Descent is effected by the controlled
release of the gas, through a valve in the top of the container, operated by
a cord from the basket.
BALLOT
A ballot is a method of secret voting.
BALMORAL
A balmoral is a type of laced walking shoe. A balmoral was a 19th-century
woollen petticoat, worn showing below the skirt. A balmoral or bluebonnet is
a Scottish brimless hat traditionally of dark blue wool with a cockade and
plume on one side.
BALMORAL CASTLE
Balmoral Castle is the British royal residence in Scotland. It stands on the
right bank of the Dee near Crathie. Balmoral was purchased in 1848 by Queen
Victoria.
BANK HOLIDAY
Bank Holidays are British public holidays when the banks are closed. They
are New Year’s Day, Easter Monday, May Day (the first Monday in May), Spring
Bank Holiday (the last Monday in May), August
Bank Holiday (last Monday in August), and Boxing Day. In Scotland, Easter
Monday is replaced by the 2nd of January and the August Bank Holiday is on
the first Monday in August. In Northern Ireland Saint Patrick’s Day (the
17th of March) is added. In the Channel Islands Liberation Day (the 9th of
May) is included. Bank Holidays have a similar status to Sundays in that
bills of exchange falling due on a Bank Holiday are postponed until the
following day and also they do not count in working out days of grace. Good
Friday and Christmas Day are also public holidays, but payments falling due
(including bills of exchange) on these days are payable on the preceding day.
When
Bank Holidays fall on a Sunday, the following day becomes the Bank Holiday.
BANNS
In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any kind; hence arose
the present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage.
BAR
In geography, a bar is a collection of gravel, sand or mud at the mouth of a
river.
BAR MITZVAH
Bar Mitzvah are Jewish celebrations connected with reaching the age of
maturity and of legal and religious responsibility. A boy celebrates his
Bar Mitzvah when he is thirteen years and one day old, a girl (in non-
orthodox communities) when she is twelve years and one day. The celebration
involves the child reading a passage from the Torah or the Prophets in the
synagogue on the Sabbath, and is then considered a full member of the
congregation.
BAREBONES PARLIAMENT
The Barebones Parliament was the assembly summoned by Oliver Cromwell in
July 1653, after he had dissolved the Rump Parliament. It consisted of 140
members chosen partly by the army leaders and partly by congregations of ‘
godly men’. Known initially as the Parliament of Saints, it was later
nicknamed after ‘Praise-God’ Barbon, or Barebones, one of its excessively
pious leaders. Its attacks on the Court of Chancery and on the Church of
England alarmed both Cromwell and its more moderate members. The dissolution
of this Parliament was followed by the Instrument of Government and the
proclamation of Cromwell as Lord Protector.
BAREGE
Barege is a gauze-like fabric used for women’s dresses, made of silk and
worsted, or of cotton and worsted.
BARON
Baron is an English peerage title.
BARREL
A barrel is a dry and liquid measurement that varies with substance. A
barrel of beef was equal to 200 lbs, a barrel of butter varied from 106 to
256 lbs, a barrel of flour from 196 to 228 lbs, a barrel of gunpowder was
100 lbs, a barrel of raisins was 112 lbs, a barrel of soft soap was 256 lbs.
BARRIER TREATY
The Barrier Treaty was a treaty concluded in 1709 at the Hague between
England and the Netherlands, by which the Netherlands republic obtained the
right to occupy certain fortified places (Namur, Tournai, Menin, Furnes, etc.
) in the Spanish Netherlands.
BASIN
In geography, a basin is a drainage area of a river and its confluents.
BASKET
A basket is a woven container.
BASQUE
Basque is a language of Western Europe known to its speakers, the Basques,
as Euskara, and apparently unrelated to any other language on Earth. It is
spoken by some half a million people in central North Spain and South-west
France, around the Bay of Biscay, as well as by emigrants in both Europe and
the Americas. The language is of central importance to the Basque
nationalist movement. Although previously forbidden in all public places for
most of Franco’s rule, Basque was permitted in church and primary schools
from 1968 and taught in all schools from 1979. The first
Basque parliament was elected 1980 and the language officially recognised
along with Spanish in the
Basque provinces.
BASTINADO
Bastinado is a form of torture or punishment (often used in SM sex games)
involving beating the soles of the feet.
BATTERY
In law, battery is the intentional or reckless application of physical force
to someone without his consent.
Battery is a form of trespass to the person and is a summary offence
(punishable with a fine of up to £2000 and/or six months’ imprisonment) as
well as a tort, even if no actual harm results. If actual harm does result,
however, the consent of the victim may not prevent the act from being
criminal, except when the injury is inflicted in the course of properly
conducted sports or games (e.g. rugby or boxing) or as a result of
reasonable surgical intervention, for example in the ‘ Spanner Case’ a group
of consenting adults were convicted for indulging in sado-masochistic sex
acts.
BAUHAUS
Bauhaus is a German institution for training architects, artists and
industrial designers founded in 1919 at Weimer.
BAY
In geography, a bay is a broad open indentation in a coast-line.
BAYOU
A bayou is a section of still or slow-moving marshy water cut off from a
main river channel, often in the form of an oxbow lake. Bayous are typical
of the Mississippi River delta in Louisiana.
BD
BD or bondage and discipline is a form of sexual activity involving bondage
and role-playing or humiliation but, unlike SM, little or no pain.
BEACH-LA-MAR
See “Neo-Melanesian”
BEATING THE BOUNDS
Beating the bounds (riding the marches) was a popular English ceremony of
perambulation round the boundaries of a township or parish on Ascension Day
with the view of keeping alive the memory of the places where the boundaries
ran. It used to be sometimes customary to whip the boys of the parish school
at important spots during the walk, and this practice continued at some
places up to the start of the 20th century.
BEAUTY CULTURE
Beauty Culture is the art of improving the physical appearance. The practice
of painting the face, of dressing the hair, and of using lotions and
perfumes to enhance natural beauty dates back to ancient times. Unguent jars,
still fragrant with musk, were found in the 4,000-year old tomb of King
Tutankhamen. Cosmetics, oils for the skin, perfumes, and aromatic baths were
known to the Egyptians. Henna, which is still used as a hair dye and by the
Arabs for painting the hands, was used in the time of Cleopatra to colour
the finger and toe nails. The Greeks used perfumes, many of which were
imported from Egypt, and also experimented with hair dyes and bleaches. They
introduced cosmetics into the Roman Empire, and by the time of Nero it was
common for Romans of both sexes to use perfumes, and to indulge in luxurious
baths. Kohl (still used by the Arabs) was used for painting the eyes, pumice
powder for whitening the teeth, and fucus as a rouge for the lips and cheeks.
Cosmetics were first used in Britain at the time of the Roman occupation,
but they were uncommon until many centuries later. During the 11th and 12th
centuries the Crusaders brought all kinds of perfumes and cosmetics from the
east. In Elizabethan times powders, rouges, and eye cosmetics were popular;
ladies-in-waiting took milk baths; Mary, Queen of Scots, bathed in wine.
These practices were suppressed during the Commonwealth, but were revived
under Charles II. Small- pox scars and the ravages of other diseases were
concealed by means of heavy make-up. Herbal lotions and packs were later
sold to improve the complexion, but it was not until the 20th century that
make-up became generally accepted by women of all classes. The manufacture
of cosmetics has now developed into a major industry, and many women pay
regular visits to beauty salons, not only for treatment for their hair (the
first permanent’wave’, created in 1905 by Charles Nessler, was a painful
nine hour operation), but for massage, skin conditioning, facial treatment
and manicure. Since the Second World War toilet preparations for men have
become increasingly popular, and modern fashions with their revealing lines
and emphasis on active leisure clothes have dictated greater attention to
the body as well as the face for both sexes. Salons specialising not merely
in getting rid of excess fat, but in developing perfect proportions and
fitness by exercises and other means, have multiplied to become common place
in the west today.
BELLATRIX
Bellatrix is a white star in the right shoulder of the constellation of
Orion.
BELOMANCY
Belomancy is divination by means of arrows.
BELT
A belt is a flat strip of material worn around the waist.
BENELUX
Benelux is an association of countries in western Europe, consisting of
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Apart from geographical proximity
these countries have particularly close economic interests, recognised in
their 1947 customs union. In 1958 the Benelux countries joined the European
Economic Community.
BENJAMIN ORDER
The Benjamin order (from the case of Benjamin in 1902) is an English law
order made by the court for the distribution of assets on death when it is
uncertain whether or not a beneficiary is alive. The order authorises the
personal representatives of the deceased (who will be administering the
estate) to distribute the property on the basis that the beneficiary is dead
(or on some other basis); the personal representatives are thus protected
from being sued if the beneficiary is in fact alive and entitled. The
beneficiary may, however, trace the trust property.
BENTLEY ARNAGE
The Bentley Arnage is a luxury four-door saloon motor car produced since
1998 in a 4.4 litre twin turbo fuel injected 32 valve V8 cylinder engine
producing 350 BHP and providing 17 mpg (known as the Green Label) and a 6.7
litre 16 valve V8 cylinder engine model producing 400 BHP and delivering 14
mpg (known as the Red Label). The Bentley Arnage is renowned for its
opulence, high running costs and depreciation in value.
BEOWULF
Beowulf is a famous English epic. The poem is rich in the accurate and
picturesque portrayal of the daily life in England in the 6th century.
BERETTA
See “Biretta”
BERNE UNION
Berne Union is the informal name for the International Union of Credit and
Investment Insurers, an association of credit insurers from the main
industrial countries, except Japan. Its main function is to facilitate an
exchange of information, especially over credit terms. The Export Credits
Guarantee Department of the UK government is a member.
BERNESQUE POETRY
Bernesque poetry is that type of poetry which blends satire, wit, mockery
and serious thought, as in Byron’s Don Juan and in the poetry of
Francesco Berni from whom the name is derived.
BETROTHMENT
Betrothment is a mutual promise or contract between two parties, by which
they bind themselves to marry. In ancient times it was attended with the
exchanging of rings, joining hands and kissing in the presence of witnesses.
Since a betrothment is a contract, it may be subject to litigation.
BI-PARTISAN FOREIGN POLICY
In politics, a bi-partisan foreign policy is a foreign policy on which both
the government and the opposition parties are agreed.
BIBA
Biba was a fashion label best known in the early 1970s for moody, nostalgic
clothes and accessories in shades of brown, plum, grey, and pink. It was
established in 1963 by Barbara Hulanicki as a mail- order business and in
1973 it moved to the former premises of Derry and Toms, an Art Deco
department store in Kensington, London. The business closed later in the
1970s. A major retrospective exhibition was held in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in
1993, coinciding with the revival of 1970s fashion.
BIBLE
The bible is the sacred book of the Jewish and Christian religions (actually
a collection of a number of books) . The Hebrew Bible, recognised by both
Jews and Christians, is called the Old Testament by Christians. The New
Testament comprises books recognised by the Christian church from the 4th
century as canonical. The Roman Catholic Bible also includes the Apocrypha.
It was only in the 13th century that single-volume Bibles with a fixed
content and order of books became common, largely through a Paris-produced
Vulgate of 1200 and the Paris
Bible of 1230. The first English translation of the entire Bible was by a
priest, Miles Coverdale in 1535; the Authorised Version, or King James Bible
of 1611, was long influential for the clarity and beauty of its language. A
revision of the Authorized Version carried out in 1959 by the British and
Foreign Bible Society produced the widely used American translation, the
Revised Standard Version. A conference of British churches in 1946
recommended a completely new translation into English from the original
Hebrew and Greek texts; work on this was carried out over the following two
decades, resulting in the publication of the New English Bible in 1961 and
1970. Another recent translation is the Jerusalem Bible, completed by
Catholic scholars in 1966. Missionary activity led to the translation of the
Bible into the languages of people they were trying to convert, and by 1993
parts of the Bible had been translated into over 2,000 different languages,
with 329 complete translations. The King James Bible has probably sold more
copies than any other book in history, and is still popular, especially
among fundamentalists. The ‘Good News Bible’ has been the most popular
translation into modern colloquial English. Two new versions of the Bible
were published in the mid- 1990s: the Contemporary English Version of 1996,
which rejects old biblical language in favour of a contemporary spoken style,
and the Schocken Bible of 1995, a translation of the Pentateuch, which
attempts to renew the shock of the original Hebrew. As more manuscripts are
discovered, disputed readings become clearer, so that in some respects
modern translations are more accurate than older ones.
BIBLIOMANCY
Bibliomancy is divination by means of the phrases in a book, especially the
verses in the bible. It originated around the 18th century.
BICYCLE
A bicycle is a two wheeled vehicle.
BIELA’S COMET
Biela’s Comet was discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, in 1826. Its
orbit was calculated at 6 years and 38 weeks and the comet was seen again in
1832, 1839, 1846 and 1852. On the last two sitings it appeared in two
distinct parts. It has not been seen since, however in 1872 and 1879 when
the earth passed through the comets orbit immense flights of meteors were
seen which were connected with the break-up of the comet.
BIG BEN
Big Ben is the 13.5 ton bell in the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament.
It was cast at the Whitechapel Bell Foundry in 1858, and popularly known as
Big Ben after Sir Bejamin Hall, the First Commissioner of Works at the time.
BIGHT
In geography, a bight is a shallow even indentation in the sea coast, often
of great width.
BIKINI
The Bikini is a two-piece item of women’s swim-wear. It was invented in 1946
by a French designer and was called the ‘bikini’ after the atom bomb test at
bikini atoll, the premise being that the bikini was as small as an atom, and
the results were explosive! When first revealed, no professional model could
be found to model such a revealing item of clothing, and so a cabaret dancer
was hired to model the first bikini.
BILBOES
Bilboes are an apparatus for confining the feet of offenders, especially on
board ships, consisting of a long bar of iron with shackles sliding on it
and a lock at one end to stop them from sliding off. From the use of bilboes
evolved the term ‘put in irons’.
BILL OF RIGHTS
The Bill of Rights was a statute embodied in the declaration of Rights
presented by both houses of the Convention to the prince and Princess of
Orange in 1689. After declaring the late King James II to have done various
acts contrary to the laws of the realm, and to have abdicated the government,
the Bill of Rights proceeds to enact in detail the celebrated declaration as
to the rights and liberties of the English people. It was laid down that the
crown had no power to suspend or dispense with the ordinary laws, or form
judicial courts, or levy money without parliamentary sanction. The raising
or keeping of a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless
with the consent of Parliament was declared to be unlawful. Freedom of
election for members of Parliament, freedom of speech in debate, and the
right of the subject to petition the crown were alike maintained. A clause
also stated that if any king or queen should embrace the Roman Catholic
religion, or intermarry with a Roman Catholic, their subjects should be
absolved of their allegiance.
BILLETING
Billeting is a mode of feeding and lodging soldiers when they are not in
camp or barracks, by quartering them on the inhabitants of a town.
BILLION
Formerly a billion was one thousand million (10 to the 9th power) in the USA
and one million (10 to the 12th power) in Britain. It is now almost
universally taken to be one thousand million.
BIOLOGICAL PROGRAMMING IN HUMAN SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS
A young person on a Friday night dresses up and goes to town seeking a mate.
They would argue that their choice of clothes and presentation are conscious.
Decisions made in the light of current fashion trends and their own
perception of what they look good in. In fact, the choices have already been
made by nature. Biological programming by nature steers that young person as
surely as the winds and tides steer a ship without a rudder. To understand
these unconscious motivations one must review the role of humans as animals.
All animals are programmed with the primary intention of helping the species
to survive long-term. Long term survival of any species is accomplished
through it’s adaptation and development. A species adapts from one
generation to the next through the mixing of genes. Breeding between many
different partners. Nature programs all animals to encourage the combination
of genes which are most likely to assist the species. Strong animals breed
together and restrict the breeding of weaker animals. Creative and
perceptive, but weak individuals covertly breed. In this way both strength,
and creativity are passed on. The notion of ‘the survival of the fittest’ is
quite untrue. Speed, strength and mental ability all assist survival. Human
animals are no different in their programming to any other species. They are
as much victims to the primary directive of species survival as are the
amoeba, the ant and the elephant. When two animals, be they human or
otherwise, breed the parents pass on to the offspring characteristics from
themselves. The offspring is then a mixture of characteristics from the
parents. Human animals have an insatiable desire to pass on their
characteristics. It is programmed into them just as it is with all animals.
Certainly the human ability to think and to rationalise gives rise to
conflicts between this animal desire and social acceptability, but the urge
remains none-the-less. To examine how the desire to satisfy this primary
directive motivates humans in perhaps everything they do one must first
review the basic roles of the genders. The female human, like all female
mammals is fertilised by the male and carries the young inside herself for a
while before giving birth. Human’ s give birth prematurely, as do all
advanced animals. If the human mother was to carry her offspring until such
time as it was capable of self sufficiency her gestation period would be in
the region of twelve years, rather than nine months. Quite impossible, so
the young is born early and dependant upon the mother, for she produces milk,
for support. In a primitive society, a nursing mother is incapable of
supporting her offspring and gathering food and shelter for herself. The
human mother, like most other animals relies upon the support of a partner -
usually the male father of the offspring - who will collect food, shelter
and provide protection against predators. The two roles are quite clearly
defined by nature: The female nurtures the offspring The male provides for
the female during the nurturing period With civilisation, the gender roles
become confused. A male may nurture the offspring once it has been born
while the female support him. Two males or females may acquire an offspring
and live together. But the basic situation is the same; two adults co-
operating for the benefit of producing new offspring for the species.
Gregarious co- operation with family units supporting single parents may
also appear. But even in these circumstances responsibility for an offspring
will be taken by one or two adults. Realising these basic roles of the two
genders one can see what each looks for in the other as a partner. The
female when seeking a male partner looks for the following characteristics:
1) Desirability by other females. This ensures that resultant offspring will
also attractive and will have the maximum chance of spawning. 2) Fidelity.
To ensure the maximum purity of the offspring. 3) Steadfastness. This
ensures that the male will support her during the gestation period and while
the offspring is dependant upon her. Otherwise, she and the offspring may
not survive. 4) Mental ability. Mental ability is important to assist the
species to develop. 5) Strength. Physical strength is necessary for the
survival of both the offspring and the species. 6) Social Status. In an
advanced society this may be realised as wealth. A perceived high social
status implies success, which in turn inspires confidence in the off spring’
s chances of survival. The male human seeks the following from a female mate:
1) Desirability by other males. This ensures that resultant offspring will
also attractive and will have the maximum chance of spawning. 2) Fidelity.
To ensure the maximum purity of the offspring. 3) Steadfastness. This
ensures that the female will provide and nourish the offspring ensuring its
survival. 4) Mental ability. Mental ability is important to assist the
species to develop. 5) Strength. Physical strength is necessary for the
survival of both the offspring and the species. Despite the desire for
fidelity in our partner, mankind has also been programmed to spread our
genes as far and wide as possible. This programming is responsible for the
phases humans go through with our desires at times for ‘older’ and ‘younger’
partners, and also for ‘ exotic’ or foreign partners. The problem of
inbreeding has been taken care of with our variance in what humans find
desirable. If all humans found the same attributes attractive in a person,
the scope of reproduction would be severely limited. However, by programming
humans to find different attributes more or less attractive, nature ensures
a good spread of reproduction. Personality takes a part. Our programming to
benefit the species leads one to resist personalities with attributes which
do not consider beneficial to the species, and to bias towards personalities
with attributes which are found beneficial. As with all animals, humans have
a problem with finding a mate. Potential mates must be satisfied with our
desirability. And while this can be circumscribed through force and deceit
(rape or plying the mate with alcohol or drugs to numb the mind), generally
humans preen and parade themselves as other animals do. Humans embarrass
attractiveness through covering our bodies with perfumes, clothes and paint.
Males will appear successful through driving a suitable vehicle, or wearing
suitable clothes. Suitable being items which trigger the notion of success
in the potential mate’s mind. The female human, being on the whole passive
in the mate selection process, will display herself in front of potential
mates to attract attention. She implies receptibility through the display
and emphasis of her erogenous regions. Homosexuality: Whilst the divisions
between the male and female sexes in humans is clearly defined biologically,
psychologically the male and female genders are confused, blended and fused.
The advancement of the human animal has been a partial result of the
blending of psychological characteristics of parents in their offspring.
Thus, all humans posses male and female characteristics in varying degrees,
forming a shaded psyche rather than the clearly defined male/ female roles
of less complex organisms. This may account for the comparatively large
number of human homosexuals compared to other animals, and indeed
observation and interviews with homosexual men over many years has led to
the belief that male homosexuals are essentially of the male sex, but female
gender, consisting of a much higher proportion of female psychological
attributes than traditional men.
BIRETTA
A biretta (birretta, beretta) is an ecclesiastical cap of a square shape
with stiff sides and a tassel at the top. It is usually black for priests,
violet for bishops and scarlet for cardinals.
BIRMINGHAM DAILY POST
The Birmingham Daily Post was established in 1857 by John Feeney in
association with Sir John Jaffray, and was the first daily newspaper to be
published in the provinces at the price of one penny. During the American
civil war, the newspaper stoutly supported the cause of the North, despite
widespread British support for the South.
BIRRETT
See “Biretta”
BISE
The bise is a dry north wind prevalent in Switzerland and southern France.
BIT
A bit is the part of a bridle which goes into the mouth of a horse and to
which the reigns are attached. In carpentry, a bit is the movable boring
tool used by means of a brace.
BITTER
Bitter is a taste sensation caused by stimulation of the gustatory nerve.
BIVOUAC
A bivouac is an encampment of soldiers in the open-air without tents or huts,
but with temporary shelters improvised out of available materials.
BLACK KNOT
Black knot is a fungal disease of plums and cherries caused by
Dibotryon morbosum and characterised by rough black knot-like swellings on
the twigs and branches.
BLACK MONDAY
There have been many dates dubbed ‘Black Monday’, but the first was Easter
Monday, 14th April 1360, ‘ so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter cold
that many men died on their horsebacks with the cold.’ The day on which a
number of English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin in 1209. The day
of panic in 1745 when the Scottish rebels were reported to have arrived at
Derby, and the Bank of England paid in sixpences.
BLANK VERSE
Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. It was first introduced into English
from Italian by the Earl of Surrey in the 16th century. Blank verse was
first employed in the English drama Gorboduc, written by Sackville in 1561.
BLANKET
A blanket is an extensive covering. Often a warm bed covering.
BLANKET BOG
A blanket bog is a very acid peat bog, low in nutrients and extending widely
over a flat terrain. They are found in cold wet climates.
BLOOM
A bloom is a lump of puddled iron, which leaves the furnace in a rough state,
to be subsequently rolled into bars or whatever.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Bloom’s taxonomy is three educational objectives formulated by the American
psychologist B S Bloom. The cognitive deals with knowledge and its
application; the affective deals with emotions and values; and the
psychomotor deals with physical and manipulative skills.
BLOOMER COSTUME
The Bloomer costume was a style of dress adopted around 1849 by Mrs
Amelia Jenks Bloomer of New York, a woman who crusaded for women’s dress
reform. The style consisted of a jacket with close sleeves, a skirt reaching
a little below the knee, and a pair of Turkish pantaloons secured by bands
around the ankles.
BLOWHOLE
In geography, a blowhole is a hole in the roof of a seaside cave through
which sit and sometimes water are forced by the rising tide.
BLUBBER
Blubber is the thick coating of fat enveloping whales.
BLUCHER
A blucher was a type of 19th century horse-drawn coach. A blucher was a 19th
century strong, laced, leather half-boot or high shoe.
BLUEBONNET
See “Balmoral”
BLUNDELL’S SCHOOL
Blundell’s School is a public school outside Tivertonin Devon. It was
founded in 1604 by Peter Blundell, a Tiverton tradesman and was mentioned in
the book Lorna Doone.
BOARD OF GREEN CLOTH
The Board of Green Cloth was an ancient court in the department of the lord-
steward of the household with jurisdiction of all offences committed in the
verge of the court. It was abolished in 1849.
BOATER
A boater is a stiff straw hat with a straight brim and flat crown.
BODE’S LAW
Bode’s Law is an arithmetic formula, previously known by Kepler and Titius
of Wittenberg, which expresses approximately the distance of the planets
from the sun.
BOG
Bog is the name given to soft spongy land.
BOG SPAVIN
A bog spavin is a fluctuating swelling on the inner and front part of the
hock of a horse, arising from a distension of the joint capsule with
synovial fluid.
BOILING TO DEATH
Boiling To Death was made a capital punishment in England by Henry VIII in
1531 as a result of seventeen people being poisoned by Richard Rosse, the
bishop of Rochester’s cook, two of whom died. Margaret Davy, a young woman
was similarly executed in 1542 for a similar crime. The act was repealed in
1547.
BOLIDE
Bolide is the name given to a meteor seen to explode in the atmosphere.
BOLL
Boll was an old Scottish measure used for corn. A boll of wheat or beans was
equal to 4 bushels, a boll of oats, barley or potatoes equal to 6 bushels.
It was abolished by an act which came into force on January 1st 1879
replacing the boll and other local weights with imperial weights and
measures.
BOLT
A bolt was a British measurement for canvas equal to 35 yards.
BOMBAZINE
Bombazine is a twilled or corded cloth composed of silk and worsted. It was
first manufactured in England during the reign of Elizabeth I and from
around 1816 it was chiefly made at Norwich.
BONDAGE
Bondage is a family of sexual activities, generally involving the tying or
strapping up of one partner or the other. Popular forms include Japanese
rope bondage, involving extensive binding with rope. Often, though not
necessarily, bondage is associated with sadomasochism, slave and master
games or pony girl games. Typical variations range from tying a partner’s
hands behind their back or handcuffing them in the manner of a police arrest,
through to tying a partner spread-eagle on their back to a table, or
standing against a wall. Tight fitting clothes, such as corsets are another
popular form of self-administered bondage, particularly for women.
BOOK OF MORMON
The book of Mormon is an alleged translation (done in 1830) by
Joseph Smith Jnr, of a volume found buried in a stone box on Cumorah, a hill
near Manchester, New York state. Composed of gold plates eight inches by
seven inches, fastened by three gold rings, written in ‘reformed Egyptian’,
interpreted by the aid of two crystals (Urim and Thummim) set like
spectacles in a silver bow, it summarised American history from Babel to 420
AD. Its authors were the prophet Mormon and his son Moroni. A travesty of
the Old Testament, and of similar size, intended as the bible of the West,
it has been identified by unbelievers with an unprinted romance, ‘The Found
Manuscript’ by Solomon Spaulding who died in 1816, copied and communicated
to Smith by Sidney Rigdon.
BOOK OF THE DEAD
The Book of the Dead was an ancient Egyptian collection of religious texts
for guiding the departed soul safely through the dangers of the Amenti, the
lower world. A copy of the work was placed with the mummy in his tomb.
BOOPSY
Boopsy is a Jamaican term for a man who supports a woman materially, and yet
receives no sexual gratification in return (being boopsed). Hence the
expression; ‘Mi a no boops!’ which translates as ‘I am not a boopsy’.
BOOTIKIN
A bootikin was a wood and iron boot used in torture to extract confessions
from the victim. Wooden wedges were hammered between the leg and the boot
with a mallet so as to crush the victims bone.
BORE
In geography, a bore is a tidal wave produced in river estuaries by the
rapid narrowing of the channel.
BOROUGHS
British Boroughs originated as Anglo-Saxon, Viking and Norman towns from the
ninth century. The Anglo-Saxon invaders who arrived in Britain in the fifth
to seventh centuries were farmers, not interested in repairing the roads or
maintaining the Roman towns which fell into partial disuse. The Angle-Saxons
at first regarded towns as ‘the defences of slavery and the graves of
freedom… the work of giants seen from afar’ . However, when the Vikings
from Scandinavia overran the east and north of the country in the ninth
century, they turned to town life in the area which they conquered, the
Danelaw. The commercial life of York, their headquarters from 876, was
revived by Viking enterprise, the Roman walls of Chester were rebuilt by a
Viking chief, and the East Midlands came under the jurisdiction of the five
newly-created Scandinavian boroughs of Nottingham, Derby, Leicester,
Stamford and Lincoln. The Angle-Saxons, under their kings Alfred the Great
and Edward the Elder, not to be outdone, also created boroughs similar to
those of the Scandinavian invaders, at places such as Northampton,
Huntingdon, Bedford and Tamworth, and despite many setbacks, reconquered all
the territory which the Scandinavians had acquired. In 1066, the Normans in
their turn came to Britain as conquering invaders, and also built new
boroughs and enlarged old ones. The Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian and Norman
borough had varied functions. It was foremost a defended place or strong
point surrounded by an earthen bank of oval or square shape, or by the
patched-up wall of an older Roman town. In each new borough, the King
settled a permanent garrison with ample reserves, sustained by landowners on
whom was laid the obligation of defending the borough in time of need. In
return for this, the borough and its burgesses were protected by the King’s
special peace. The borough was also a trading centre, with a market place
(see Market Towns) and often a mint for coins. When King Edward the Elder
ordained that all buying and selling should take place in a market town in
the presence of a town-reeve, he ensured the concentration of trading in the
growing boroughs. The borough was also an administrative centre. Indeed,
many British modern counties came into being as the territories allocated by
the King to the support of the defences and trading facilities of a borough,
e.g. Nottinghamshire was the support for the county town of Nottingham, as
its name shows.
BORROWING DAYS
The Borrowing Days are the last three days of March. They are so named from
the myth that they were borrowed by March from April.
BORT
Bort is a powdered form of diamond.
BORTHWICK CASTLE
Borthwick Castle is a castle in Scotland 22 km south-east of Edinburgh. It
was built around 1430. In 1567 Queen Mary and Bothwell spent some days in it
before fleeing to Dunbar to escape the insurgent nobles. The castle
capitulated to Oliver Cromwell in 1650.
BOSTON TEA PARTY
The Boston Tea Party was an incident that occurred at the height of the
agitation antecedent to the American revolution. On December 16th, 1773 a
group of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded several ships laden with
taxed tea and threw 350 chests of it into the harbour. In retaliation the
home government declared the port closed.
BOTANOMANCY
Botanomancy is divination by means of plants.
BOULE WORK
Boule Work (Buhl Work) is a type of marquetry invented by Charles Boule, a
French woodcarver. Tortoise-shell, brass and rosewood are inlaid together
with a highly decorative effect.
BOURGEOIS
Bourgeois is a size of printing type larger than brevier and smaller than
long primer, used in books and newspapers.
BOURNOUS
A bournous is a hooded garment worn in Algeria, and introduced to England
and France in a modified form in 1847.
BOVATE
A bovate (oxgang) was an early English measure of land equal to half a
virgate and one-eight of a carucate. It was deemed to be the extent that an
ox could plough in one day and varied from 8 to 24 acres.
BOWLINE
The bowline is a non-slip knot.
BOX DAY
Box day is a day in Scotland when the courts of law being closed, lawyers
and litigants can hand in papers.
BOXING DAY
Boxing Day is the day following Christmas day. It has long been a holiday in
England, and is so named from the tradition of giving Christmas boxes as a
present on that day to employees and messengers.
BOYS BRIGADE
The Boys Brigade was a movement started in 1884 by W A Smith of Glasgow with
the object of advancing Christianity among boys and promoting habits of
obedience, reverence, discipline, self-respect and Christian values among
boys.
BRACCAE
Braccae were an early trouser-like garment worn by the ancient Britons at
the time of the Roman Invasion.
BRACHISTOCHRONE
In mathematics, a brachistochrone is the curve between two points through
which a body moves under the force of gravity in a shorter time than for any
other curve, that is the path of quickest descent.
BRADSHAW’S RAILWAY GUIDE
Bradshaw’s Railway Guide was once a well-known English manual for travellers.
It was first published in 1839 by George Bradshaw, a printer and engraver
living in Manchester. For a time it was published each month and contained
the arrangements of the railway and steamboat companies operating in Britain.
BRANDING
Branding is the act of marking a body with a red-hot iron. It was used as a
punishment in England for various crimes until it was abolished in 1822. A
form of branding continued for a while in the army as a punishment for
desertion when a large D was marked with ink or gunpowder on the left side
two inches below the arm-pit.
BRANKS
A branks was a kind of bridle constructed of iron bands, acting as a gag,
formerly used in England and Scotland as an instrument of punishment for
scolds and slanderous women. The culprit was paraded through the streets by
the bellman, beadle, or constable, or chained to the market cross where she
was exposed to public ridicule.
BRASSIERE
Brassieres date from the early 1900s. A design for a brassiere made from two
handkerchiefs and narrow ribbon was patented in the USA in 1914 by
Mary Phelps Jacob (Caresse Crosby). Until the mid- 1920s, brassieres were
boneless and were designed to flatten the bust and push it downwards. They
were widely adopted during the 1920s when fashionable at-home dresses and,
later, cocktail dresses were often made of revealing, semi- transparent
fabrics. By 1925, brassieres had adjustable front straps and a division
between the breasts in the bandeau front. During the late 1920s the Kestos
Company of America produced a brassiere made of two triangular pieces of
fabric secured to elastic that was pulled over the shoulders, crossed at the
back, and buttoned at the front under a darted ‘ cup’. During the late 1920s
and 1930s corsetry companies began manufacturing brassieres which were boned
and stitched into different cup sizes. A boned strapless brassiere appeared
in the late 1930s and it was during this decade that the word ‘bra’ came
into popular usage. In the 1940s the use of foam pads gave additional shape
to many bras. Their outline was most exaggerated during the 1950s, when bras
were both wired and stitched in circular patterns to further stiffen the
fabric. The strapless bra was popular during the 1950s, when it was worn
under off-the-shoulder, strapless dresses. The same decade saw manufacturers
beginning to produce bras for teenagers. With the 1960s came greater
flexibility of design and further liberation and comfort for women through
the introduction of fabrics containing Lycra. Since the 1970s, mouldings of
thermoplastic fibres at high temperatures have produced one-piece seamless
bras. In 1964 a Canadian company, later purchased by Sara Lee Intimates,
designed a ‘Wonderbra’, a padded, under-wired, push- up bra that made a more
pronounced breast shape. This style gained wide popularity from 1994, in the
wake of adverse publicity for artificial breast implants.
BRATTICE
In mines, a brattice is a partition of light wood or canvas which divides a
shaft or underground roadway in two, and furnishes a means of conducting
ventilation to the working face.
BRAVO
Bravo is an Italian adjective used as an exclamation of praise. Originally
it was used only within the theatre, but now it is used in all walks of life.
The word bravo should be used for a man, brava for a woman and bravi to
several persons.
BRAWLING
Originally, brawling was the term applied in English law to the offence of
wilfully disturbing any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for religious
worship, or misusing any preacher, teacher or persons so assembled. Today
however, the term is more generally applied to an illegal fight in a public
place.
BRAZEN BULL
The brazen bull was an article of torture invented by Perilaus for the
tyrant Phalaris. The device was a hollow, metal model of a bull with a trap
door at the back. The idea being that the victim should be placed inside and
a fire lit underneath. The victim’s screams would then be conveyed by an
ingenious collection of flutes in the head of the bull to sound like the
bellowing of a real bull. Ironically, the tyrant Phalaris was appalled by
the invention and tricked the inventor inside it where he locked him in and
lit a fire underneath, before having the man dragged out still alive and
hurled from a high rock.
BREACH OF CONTRACT
Breach of contract is a failure by a party to a contract to perform his
obligations under that contract or an indication of his intention not to do
so. An indication that a contract will be breached in the future is called
repudiation or an anticipatory breach; it may be either expressed in words
or implied from conduct. Such an implication arises when the only reasonable
inference from a person’s acts is that he does not intend to fulfil his part
of the bargain. For example, an anticipatory breach occurs if a person
contracts to sell his car to A but sells and delivers it to B before the
delivery date agreed with A. The repudiation of a contract entitles the
injured party to treat the contract as discharged and to sue immediately for
damages for the loss sustained. The same procedure only applies to an actual
breach if it constitutes a fundamental breach, i.e. a breach of a major term
of the contract. In either an anticipatory or an actual breach, the injured
party may, however, decide to affirm the contract instead (see affirmation
of contract). When an actual breach relates only to a minor term of the
contract (a warranty) the injured party may sue for damages but has no right
to treat the contract as discharged. The process of treating a contract as
discharged by reason of repudiation or actual breach is sometimes referred
to as rescission. Other remedies available under certain circumstances for
breach of contract are an injunction and specific performance.
BREAKING ON THE WHEEL
Breaking on the wheel was a form of torturous execution employed for
criminals until the 18th century in Europe. The victim was laid on his back,
spread-eagle, and fastened to the spokes. The executioner then smashed each
limb in turn with a sledge-hammer or iron bar before finally delivering the
death blow to the stomach. Earlier forms of breaking on the wheel during the
Middle Ages involved the victim being tied to a large wheel like a cylinder,
which was then rolled down a hill or over iron spikes.
BRETON
Breton is a Celtic dialect spoken in Brittany. It was carried to France by
British Celts who fled from England upon the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons in
the 5th and 6th centuries.
BREVE
In old Scots law, a breve is a short, compendious writ issued from the crown
to a judge, ordering him to try by jury the points outlined in the writ.
Procedure by breve was introduced into Scotland by James I upon the model of
the system in vogue in England.
BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION
Bribery and corruption are offences relating to the improper influencing of
people in positions of trust. The offences commonly grouped under this
expression are now statutory. Under the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act
(1889), amended by the Prevention of Corruption Act (1916), it is an offence
corruptly to offer to a member, officer, or servant of a public body any
reward or advantage to do anything in relation to any matter with which that
body is concerned; it is also an offence for a public servant or officer to
corruptly receive or solicit such a reward. The Prevention of Corruption Act
(1906) amended by the 1916 Act is wider in scope. Under this Act it is an
offence corruptly to give or offer any valuable consideration to an agent to
do any act or show any favour in relation to his principal’s affairs.
BRIDE ALE
A bride ale was an old English event where a bride would sell ale to cover
the cost of her wedding.
BRIDEWELL
Bridewell was a house of correction in Blackfriars, London. The building
took its name from a well once existing between Fleet Street and the Thames,
and dedicated to St Bride. Henry VIII built a palace to accommodate the
Emperor Charles V on the site in 1522. This building was converted by
Edward VI into a hospital to serve as a workhouse for the poor and a house
of correction for the idle and vicious. The building was badly damaged by
the Fire of London in 1666.
BRIDLE
A bridle is the head-stall and bit by which and by the reins a horse is
governed by its rider.
BRIEF
In English law, a brief is a memorandum of instructions, concisely expressed,
drawn up by an attorney for the guidance of the barrister, containing a
statement of the facts, points of law, etc. to be developed and expanded
before the court, or to be used in the cross-examination of witnesses.
BRIGANDS
Brigands are organised bands who practise general robbery, making their
headquarters in fastnesses in forests or mountains from which they sally
forth to plunder travellers of their property, or seize them until a ransom
is paid for their liberation. Brigandage had its origin in Greece and Italy,
and soon spread to France and Germany.
BRIGHELLA
Brighella is a personage in Italian popular comedy. He is always represented
as a servant who is always ready to lie, to play tricks and to plot, but
leaves the execution of his plots to Arlechino, another comic character.
BRITISH AIRPORTS AUTHORITY
The British Airports Authority plc (BAA) is a public limited company that
was floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1987 and formed from the former
British Airports Authority (founded in 1966). It owns and operates London
airports (Heathrow, Gatwick, and Stansted) as well as Aberdeen, Edinburgh,
Prestwick, and Glasgow airports. It is responsible for the construction and
maintenance of buildings, fire and security services, passenger services,
and terminal management.
BRITISH AND FOREIGN ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY
The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was founded in 1839 under the
presidency of Thomas Clarkson with the object of promoting the universal
extinction of slavery and the slave trade, and the protection of the
enfranchised population in the British possessions, and of all persons
captured as slaves. It published the ‘ Anti-Slavery Reporter’ and was still
operational in 1905.
BRITISH COAL CORPORATION
The British Coal Corporation (BCC) is the nationalised corporation, formerly
called the National Coal Board (NCB), which owns and runs all British coal
mines. The NCB itself took control of the mines in 1947.
BRITISH EMPIRE LEAGUE
The British Empire League was an association formed in 1895 in London for
the purpose of promoting trade between the United Kingdom, the colonies and
India; fostering closer intercourse between the different portions of the
empire by the establishment of cheaper and more direct steam postal and
telegraphic communication; devising a more perfect co-operation of the
military and naval forces of the empire, with a special view to the due
protection of the trade routes; assimilating, as far as possible, the laws
relating to copyright, patents, legitimacy, and bankruptcy throughout the
empire; the calling of periodic conferences to deal with these and similar
questions on the lines of the London Conference of 1887 and the Ottawa
Conference of 1894.
BRITISH EXPORTERS ASSOCIATION
The British Exporters Association (BEXA) is an association, formerly the
British Export Houses Association (BEHA), that puts UK suppliers in touch
with Association members, who trade and finance trade throughout the world.
BRITISH INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT
The British Institute of Management (BIM) is an institution set up in 1974
by the then Board of Trade to promote professionalism in management practice
and to provide information for its members. It promotes courses in
management and those with a diploma in management can become associate
members (AMBIM); there are also fellows (FBIM) and members (MBIM) of the
institute.
BRITISH INSURANCE AND INVESTMENT BROKERS ASSOCIATION
The British Insurance and Investment Brokers Association is a trade
association for insurance brokers registered with the Insurance Brokers
Registration Council and investment brokers registered under the Financial
Services Act (1986). Formed in 1977 as the British Insurance Brokers
Association by the amalgamation of a number of insurance broking
associations, it changed to its current name in 1988 to widen its membership
to include investment advisors. It provides public relations, free advice,
representation in parliament, and a conciliation service for consumers.
BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
The British Medical Association (BMA) was founded at Worcester in 1832 as
the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association. Its aims were the
advancement of medical science and the maintenance of the dignity and
welfare of the profession. In 1853 the name was altered to
British Medical Association.
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT
The British North America Act was passed by Parliament in 1867 and provided
for the voluntary union of the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick into one confederation under the title of ‘The Dominion of
Canada’. A further British North America Act passed in 1871 provided the
Parliament of Canada with the ability to establish new provinces.
BRITISH RATES AND DATA
British Rates and Data (BRAD) is a monthly publication listing addresses,
cover price, circulation, frequency, rate cards, copy and cancellation
requirements, and advertising representatives for national and provincial
newspapers, consumer, trade, technical, and professional publications, and
for television and radio stations.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
The British Standards Institution (BSI) is an institution founded in 1901,
which received a royal charter in 1929 and took its present name in 1931.
Its function is to formulate standards for building, engineering, chemical,
textile, and electrical products, ensuring that they maintain a specified
quality. Products so standardised make use of the Kite mark logo as a symbol
of quality. Manufacturers who use the Kite mark do so under licence from the
BSI on condition that products are subject to regular inspection. Apart from
maintaining quality standards in this way, the BSI attempts to ensure that
the design of goods is restricted to a sensible number of patterns and sizes
for one purpose, to avoid unnecessary variety. The BSI, which collaborates
closely with the International Standards Organization, is also actively
concerned in metrology, providing information on units of measurement and
issuing glossaries defining technical words.
BRITISH TECHNOLOGY GROUP
The British Technology Group (BTG) is a government-appointed organisation
formed in 1981 by the merger of the National Enterprise Board (NEB) and the
National Research and Development Corporation (NRDC). Its purpose is to
encourage technological development by providing finance for new scientific
and engineering products and processes discovered through research at UK
universities, polytechnics, research councils, and government research
establishments.
BRITISH TELECOM
The British Telecommunications Corporation was formed in 1981 as a public
corporation to control the UK telephone and telecommunications system, which
had previously been the responsibility of the Post Office. In 1984 this
corporation became British Telecommunications plc, when 51% of the shares
were sold to the public.
British Telecom is now licensed to run telecommunications throughout the UK.
BRITISH WATERWAYS BOARD
The British Waterways Board was set up under the Transport Act (1962) to
provide services and facilities for UK inland waterways. The Board’s
responsibilities extend over approximately 2000 miles of waterways and 90
reservoirs.
BRITZKA
A britzka is a small carriage, the head of which is always a moveable calash,
and having a place in front for the driver and a seat behind for the
servants.
BROAD ARROW
The Broad Arrow is a symbol used as a royal mark on government stores. It
was the cognisance of Viscount Sydney, Earl of Romney, who was the master-
general of the Ordnance from 1693 to 1702.
BROADBRIM
A broadbrim was a type of broad-brimmed hat worn by the Quakers in the 17th
century.
BROADMOOR
Broadmoor is an asylum in Sandhurst, Berkshire. It was built in 1863 to
house 700 of the criminally insane.
BROCADE
Brocade is a silken stuff, variegated with gold or silver, and enriched with
flowers and figures. It was originally made by the Chinese, a manufacturing
plant was established in Lyons in 1757.
BROGAN
A brogan is a coarse, stout leather shoe reaching to the ankle.
BROGUE
A brogue is a coarse and light kind of shoe made of raw or half-tanned
leather, of one entire piece, and gathered around the foot by a thong. They
were worn by the Celts of Scotland and Ireland. Nowadays, the term brogue
describes a type of strong outdoor shoe with decorative perforated bands.
BROOCH
A brooch is a kind of ornament worn on the dress, to which it is attached by
a pin stuck through the fabric.
Brooches are of great antiquity, and were formerly worn by both men and
women, especially among the Celtic races.
BROWN
Brown is a colour which may be regarded as a mixture of red and black, or of
red, black and yellow. There are many brown pigments, many of mineral origin
such as bistre, umber and cappagh brown.
BROWN HOLLAND
Brown Holland is an unbleached linen formerly used for various articles of
clothing and upholstery.
BRUMAIRE
Brumaire was the second month in the calendar adopted by the first French
Republic. It began on the 23rd of October and ended on the 21st of November.
BRUNSWICK THEATRE
The Brunswick Theatre was a theatre in Well-street, east London. It was
built in 1828 to replace the Royalty which burned down in 1826. Four days
after opening it was destroyed by the walls falling in as a result of too
much weight being attached to the heavy iron roof. The catastrophe occurred
during a rehearsal of ‘Guy Mannering’ killing twelve people.
BRUSSELS SUGAR CONVENTION
The Brussels Sugar Convention of 1898 and again in 1901 to 1902 were staged
between representatives of the major powers to discuss the abolition of
bounties on the export of sugar. Agreement was reached in 1902 by which
Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden
undertook to suppress the direct and indirect bounties by which the
production or export of sugar might benefit, and not to establish bounties
of such a kind during the duration of the convention.
BUCEPHALUS
Bucephalus (meaning Ox-Head) was the name of Alexander The Great’s horse.
When it died, he built a town over its grave in memory and called the town
Bucephala.
BUCKINGHAM PALACE
Buckingham Palace is the London residence of the British royal family. It
was built by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it was
bought by George III who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Charlotte who made
it her town residence.
BUCKLE
A buckle is a device for fastening, consisting of a metal frame having one
or more movable tongues, teeth or catches. Buckles became generally worn in
England in the place of shoe-laces during the reign of Charles II. they were
then made of expensive materials. Buckles for shoes are mentioned much
earlier than this, and were forbidden to be imported by an act of 1483. The
fashion of wearing shoe-buckles reached its height in the reign of George II.
BUCKRAM
Buckram was a coarse textile fabric stiffened with glue and used in garments
to give them and to keep them in the form intended.
BUCKSKIN
Buckskin is a soft form of leather prepared from the skin of a buck or sheep.
It was formerly used by the American Indians for clothing, and is used for
making gloves.
BUFF LEATHER
Buff leather is a type of leather made from the skin of buffalo and other
oxen. It is dressed with oil and used for making bandoliers, belts, pouches
and gloves amongst other items.
BUFFER STATE
A buffer state is a small state established or preserved between two greater
states to prevent direct clashes between them.
BUHL WORK
See “Boule Work”
BURKA
A burka is a garment worn by muslim women covering them from head to toe to prevent men seeing their appearance.
BURKING
Burking is a form of murder involving killing the victim by pressure or
other modes of suffocation so as to leave no mark of violence on the body.
It was first known to be used by Burke who was executed in 1829.
BURL
A burl is a knot. The term is used in veneering to refer to an overgrown
knot in the wood.
BURLESQUE
Burlesque was a type of American theatre entertainment characterised by
chorus-girl numbers interspersed with comedians and other acts. It started
in the mid-1800s and became very popular in the early 1900s with stars such
as Al Jolson, W.C. Fields, Sophie Tucker, Fannie Brice and strippers Gypsy
Rose Lee and Sally Rand. It declined with the rise of films and was finally
bannedin the 1940s as a threat to public morality.
BURNOOSE
A burnoose or burnous is a large kind of mantle in use amongst the bedouin
Arabs and the Berbers of Northern Africa. It is commonly made from white
wool, and has a hood for covering the head in the event of rain.
BURNOUS
See “Burnoose”
BURWELL FIRE
The Burwell Fire occurred in a barn at Burwell, near Newmarket on 8th
September 1727. A number of people had assembled to see a puppet-show in the
barn when a candle set fire to a heap of straw. Seventy-six people died at
the scene and others died later of their injuries.
BUSBY
A busby is a head-dress worn by British army hussars.
BUSHEL
The bushel is a unit of capacity measurement equivalent to 4 pecks, 8
gallons or 3.637 dekalitres. It is also used as a measure of weight for
apples, equivalent to about 40 lbs. Henry VIII ordered that a bushel should
hold eight gallons of wheat in 1520. A bushel of barley was 47 lbs, of oats
38 lbs and of wheat 60 lbs.
BUST BODICE
A bust bodice was an undergarment which was popular in the 1920s. Based on
the camisole, it was heavily boned, padded and taped to give a full, bow-
fronted, rounded appearance to the bust. It either fitted around the bust or
was slightly longer, reaching to the waist. The bust bodice was replaced by
the brassiere.
BUTT
The butt was a British measure of beer equal to 1.5 puncheons.
BUTTE
A butte is an isolated abrupt flat-topped hill found in the west USA.
BUTTERFLY BOARD
A butterfly board is a sex toy used in some play piercing games. It
comprises a card or wooden board with a hole cut to the shape of the male
genitalia. The board is placed over the genitals and the skin of the edges
of the penis and scrotum is pinned with needles or nails to it.
BY-LAW
A by-law (from the Scandinavian By meaning a town) is a law made by an
incorporated or other body for the regulation of its own affairs, or the
affairs entrusted to its care. Town councils, railway companies etc. enact
by-laws which are binding upon all coming within the sphere of the
operations of such bodies.
BYLINI
Bylini are the epic songs of Russian popular poetry. Their heroes, bogatyri,
or paladins, are either historical or mythical personages, or
personifications of the forces of nature.
BYRLAW
Byrlaw is an ancient code of law by which rural communities were governed in
minor affairs, such as the valuation of stock, the allocation of common land,
or the limitation of boundaries. The system prevailed in Britain until the
end of the 18th century.
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The Byzantine Empire is the name given to the Eastern Roman and Greek
empires which lasted from 364 or 395 to the capture of Constantinople (now
Istanbul) by the Turks in 1453.